Sources

Sources for The Thinking Clinician

The studies and guidance referred to in the articles of The Thinking Clinician, with links to each.

These are the sources referred to in the articles of The Thinking Clinician. Each link goes to the publisher's own page. Links were checked on 21 October 2026.

Part 1 · When Better Answers Do Not Mean Better Doctors

Goh E, Gallo R, Hom J, Strong E, Weng Y, Kerman H, et al. Large language model influence on diagnostic reasoning: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open. 2024;7(10):e2440969. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.40969 A randomised trial of 50 physicians. Access to a large language model did not significantly improve their diagnostic reasoning, although the model on its own scored higher than both physician groups.

Part 2 · Never-Skilling: When the Answer Comes Before the Learning

Ke Y, Jin L, Ong JCL, Thirunavukarasu AJ, Car J, Cheung CY, et al. AI-induced never-skilling in medical education. Nature Medicine. 2026;32(6):1997–2006 (Perspective, published online 22 May 2026). doi:10.1038/s41591-026-04438-y Introduces the concept of never-skilling and acknowledges that direct evidence from medical training is absent.
Wang C, Sun N, Pan X, Liu P, Ma Z, Wang W, Jin Y. The impact of integrating generative artificial intelligence into medical education on short-term learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Medical Education. 2026;26:983. doi:10.1186/s12909-026-09320-6 Twenty randomised trials with 1,413 participants.

Part 3 · The Illusion of Understanding

Teng D, Tan L, Cao Q, Xia Y, Zhang N, Li J, Zhao D. Impact of AI misinformation on diagnostic accuracy and confidence calibration in novice medical students. npj Digital Medicine. 2026;9:356. doi:10.1038/s41746-026-02547-z A three-arm randomised trial of 111 students (37 per group).

Part 4 · AI Literacy: Knowing How to Use It Is Not the Same as Knowing When to Trust It

Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (Ahpra). Meeting your professional obligations when using Artificial Intelligence in healthcare. Page reviewed 22 August 2024. ahpra.gov.au
Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care. Pragmatic AI guidance for clinicians, including the AI Clinical Use Guide. August 2025. AI Clinical Use Guide · Announcement

Part 5 · Teaching with AI: When the Answer Becomes the Lesson

Wang C, Sun N, Pan X, Liu P, Ma Z, Wang W, Jin Y. The impact of integrating generative artificial intelligence into medical education on short-term learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Medical Education. 2026;26:983. doi:10.1186/s12909-026-09320-6

Part 6 · When AI Gets It Wrong: Who Is Really in Control?

World Health Organization. Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health: guidance on large multi-modal models. Publication page · News release, 18 January 2024 The release warns that large multi-modal models can encourage automation bias among health professionals and patients.